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␈↓ α∧␈↓α␈↓ ¬.Comments on Licklider's paper.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTLicklider␈α⊂is␈α⊂right␈α⊂that␈α⊂the␈α⊂new␈α⊂technologies␈α⊂of␈α⊂computers,␈α⊂communication␈α⊂and␈α∂databases
␈↓ α∧␈↓provide␈αgreat␈αopportunities␈αto␈αimprove␈αgovernment␈αand␈αits␈αinteraction␈αwith␈αother␈αinstitutions␈αand
␈↓ α∧␈↓with␈α∪individuals.␈α∪ He␈α∪wants␈α∩to␈α∪bring␈α∪this␈α∪about␈α∩through␈α∪a␈α∪government␈α∪organized␈α∩␈↓↓Multinet␈↓
␈↓ α∧␈↓combining␈α↔communication,␈α_data␈α↔bases,␈α↔transaction␈α_monitoring,␈α↔and␈α_computation␈α↔capability.
␈↓ α∧␈↓Unfortunately,␈αthe␈α␈↓↓Multinet␈↓␈αplan␈αseems␈αto␈α
miss␈αmajor␈αpossibilities␈αfor␈αbenefitting␈αcitizens,␈αand␈α
the
␈↓ α∧␈↓proposals␈αfor␈αachieving␈αit␈αoveremphasize␈αthe␈αrole␈αof␈αgovernment,␈αcreate␈αunnecessary␈αand␈αharmful
␈↓ α∧␈↓monopolies,␈α∀and␈α∀stifle␈α∀individual␈α∀and␈α∀business␈α∪initiative.␈α∀ I␈α∀also␈α∀disagree␈α∀with␈α∀some␈α∀of␈α∪its
␈↓ α∧␈↓technological␈α↔judgments.␈α↔ I␈α_agree␈α↔that␈α↔progress␈α_requires␈α↔some␈α↔standardization␈α_on␈α↔various
␈↓ α∧␈↓communication␈α∃protocols,␈α∃but␈α∃I␈α∃think␈α∃it␈α∃is␈α∃necessary␈α∃to␈α∃be␈α∃precise␈α∃about␈α∃what␈α∃should␈α∀be
␈↓ α∧␈↓standardized and the extent to which standards should be laws.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTLicklider␈α∞envisages␈α
government␈α∞as␈α∞embodying␈α
the␈α∞collective␈α∞wisdom␈α
of␈α∞society␈α∞and␈α
setting
␈↓ α∧␈↓up␈α∂institutions␈α∂and␈α∂laws␈α∂that␈α⊂once␈α∂␈↓↓"cast␈α∂into␈α∂both␈α∂legislation␈α⊂and␈α∂software,␈α∂...␈α∂may␈α∂come␈α⊂to␈α∂be
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓regarded␈α∂the␈α⊂same␈α∂way␈α∂as␈α⊂physical␈α∂laws␈α∂are␈α⊂regarded␈α∂now:␈α∂irresistable,␈α⊂inviolable,␈α∂inescapable,
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓part␈α
of␈α
nature,␈α
invariably␈αenforced,␈α
not␈α
the␈α
kind␈αof␈α
thing␈α
one␈α
complains␈αabout"␈↓.␈α
 For␈α
good␈α
or␈αill,
␈↓ α∧␈↓government␈α
plays␈α
quite␈αa␈α
different␈α
role␈α
in␈αevery␈α
society␈α
in␈α
the␈αworld.␈α
 Manipulating␈α
law␈α
and␈αits
␈↓ α∧␈↓interpretation␈α∀is␈α∀the␈α∀main␈α∀means␈α∀of␈α∀struggle␈α∀for␈α∀group␈α∀advantage␈α∀and␈α∀a␈α∀major␈α∀means␈α∪of
␈↓ α∧␈↓individual␈α∪struggle␈α∪for␈α∪power␈α∪and␈α∪prestige.␈α∪ For␈α∪this␈α∪reason␈α∪government␈α∪law␈α∪is␈α∀unlikely␈α∪to
␈↓ α∧␈↓resemble natural law in impartiality and constancy in the forseeable future.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTA␈αconsumer␈αis␈αbetter␈αserved␈αwhen␈αmanufacturers␈αcompete␈αdirectly␈αfor␈αhis␈αdollar␈αthan␈αwhen
␈↓ α∧␈↓their␈α∞lawyers␈α∂compee␈α∞for␈α∞the␈α∂favor␈α∞of␈α∞politicians␈α∂regulators␈α∞or␈α∞judges␈α∂acting␈α∞on␈α∂the␈α∞consumer's
␈↓ α∧␈↓behalf.␈α∩ Unfortunately,␈α∩some␈α∩commodities␈α∪are␈α∩natural␈α∩monopolies␈α∩and␈α∩regulation␈α∪is␈α∩required.
␈↓ α∧␈↓When␈α
a␈α
complex␈α∞of␈α
new␈α
technologies␈α∞becomes␈α
available,␈α
it␈α
is␈α∞important␈α
to␈α
distinguish␈α∞what␈α
are
␈↓ α∧␈↓the␈αnatural␈αmonopolies␈αand␈αwhat␈αcan␈αbe␈αprovided␈αby␈αcompeting␈αservers.␈α The␈α␈↓↓Multinet␈↓␈αproposal
␈↓ α∧␈↓lumps both together.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTIn␈α
my␈α
opionion␈α
communication␈α∞of␈α
signals␈α
will␈α
remain␈α∞a␈α
natural␈α
monopoly␈α
except␈α∞that␈α
the
␈↓ α∧␈↓FCC␈α
is␈α
on␈α
the␈αright␈α
track␈α
in␈α
stimulating␈α
competition␈αin␈α
devices␈α
connected␈α
to␈α
the␈αcommunication
␈↓ α∧␈↓network.␈α Moreover␈α
the␈αoperation␈α
of␈αa␈α
particular␈αdatabase␈αsuch␈α
as␈αa␈α
national␈αlibrary,␈α
the␈αairline
␈↓ α∧␈↓guide␈α⊃or␈α⊂the␈α⊃national␈α⊂telephone␈α⊃directory␈α⊂seems␈α⊃to␈α⊂be␈α⊃a␈α⊂natural␈α⊃monopoly␈α⊃although␈α⊂different
␈↓ α∧␈↓databases␈α∞can␈α∞have␈α∞different␈α∞proprietors,␈α∞and␈α∞methods␈α∞of␈α∞accessing␈α∞the␈α∞database␈α∞can␈α∞sometimes
␈↓ α∧␈↓compete.␈α∞ Other␈α∞than␈α∞that,␈α∞it␈α∞seems␈α∞to␈α∞me␈α∞that␈α∞computation␈α∞services␈α∞and␈α∂so-called␈α∞value-added
␈↓ α∧␈↓communication␈α
is␈α
not␈α
a␈α
natural␈α
monopoly,␈α
and␈α
policy␈α
makers␈α
ought␈α
to␈α
try␈α
to␈α
ensure␈α
that␈α
it␈α
remains
␈↓ α∧␈↓competitive.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTThe␈α∂experience␈α∂of␈α∂our␈α∂society␈α∂is␈α∂that␈α∞when␈α∂a␈α∂service␈α∂can␈α∂be␈α∂provided␈α∂by␈α∞manufacturers
␈↓ α∧␈↓competing␈αfor␈αa␈αcustomer's␈αdollar,␈α
the␈αresult␈αis␈αmore␈αsatisfactory␈α
than␈αwhen␈αthe␈αservice␈αhas␈α
to␈αbe
␈↓ α∧␈↓provided␈α∪by␈α∪a␈α∪monopoly␈α∪whether␈α∩governmental␈α∪or␈α∪private.␈α∪ Unfortunately,␈α∪defense␈α∪and␈α∩the
␈↓ α∧␈↓telephone␈αnetwork␈αare␈αnatural␈αmonopolies␈αthat␈αmust␈αbe␈αoperated␈αor␈αregulated␈αby␈αthe␈αgovernment.
␈↓ α∧␈↓The␈α⊃␈↓↓Multinet␈↓␈α⊃proposals␈α⊂lead␈α⊃to␈α⊃monopoly␈α⊂in␈α⊃two␈α⊃ways:␈α⊂They␈α⊃combine␈α⊃naturally␈α⊂monopolistic
␈↓ α∧␈↓communication␈α∪with␈α∪naturally␈α∪competitive␈α∀data-processing,␈α∪and␈α∪they␈α∪arrogate␈α∀to␈α∪government
␈↓ α∧␈↓decisions␈αabout␈αwhat␈αservices␈αwill␈αbest␈αserve␈αthe␈α
citizen␈αin␈αcases␈αwhere␈αthe␈αcitizen␈αcan␈αserve␈αas␈α
the
␈↓ α∧␈↓best judge of his own welfare by deciding what to buy.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTHere are some detailed comments:

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ ε|1␈↓ ∧



␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT1.␈α∂The␈α⊂stated␈α∂assumption␈α∂about␈α⊂programation␈α∂that␈α⊂␈↓↓"unless␈α∂it␈α∂is␈α⊂wisely␈α∂planned␈α⊂and␈α∂well
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓executed,␈αit␈αwill␈αbe␈α
disastrous␈αin␈αthe␈αlong␈α
run"␈↓␈αis␈αunsupported␈αby␈α
any␈αexample␈αof␈αwhat␈αbad␈α
things
␈↓ α∧␈↓will␈α⊂happen␈α⊂if␈α⊂data-processing␈α⊂and␈α⊂communication␈α⊂continue␈α⊂unplanned.␈α⊂ To␈α⊂be␈α⊂a␈α⊂bit␈α⊂rude,␈α∂it
␈↓ α∧␈↓sounds␈α∂like␈α∂self-serving␈α∂nonsense␈α∂on␈α∂behalf␈α⊂of␈α∂the␈α∂"public␈α∂policy␈α∂community"␈α∂and␈α⊂people␈α∂who
␈↓ α∧␈↓want␈α
the␈αauthority␈α
to␈α
regulate.␈α Certainly␈α
Licklider's␈αscenario␈α
1␈α
can't␈αbe␈α
called␈αa␈α
disaster.␈α
 It␈αjust
␈↓ α∧␈↓depicts␈α∩some␈α∩opportunities␈α∩missed␈α∩if␈α∩the␈α∩government␈α∩doesn't␈α∩take␈α∩them.␈α∩ Since␈α⊃co-ordination
␈↓ α∧␈↓requires␈αthe␈α
authority␈αto␈αforbid␈α
independent␈αinitiative␈α
in␈αthe␈αarea␈α
to␈αbe␈α
co-ordinated,␈αstatements
␈↓ α∧␈↓that co-ordination is required must be very well justified.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTI␈α
suppose␈α
the␈α
statement,␈α
␈↓↓"recognizing␈αthe␈α
potential␈α
significance␈α
of␈α
computer␈αcommunication,
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓the␈α∂government␈α∂organizes␈α∂all␈α∂the␈α∂capabilities␈α⊂of␈α∂the␈α∂society␈α∂to␈α∂develop␈α∂and␈α∂exploit␈α⊂networking␈α∂in
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓socially␈αas␈αwell␈αas␈αeconomically␈αproductive␈αdimensions␈↓␈αis␈αnot␈αintended␈αto␈αbe␈αtaken␈αliterally.␈α No-one
␈↓ α∧␈↓has␈αshown␈αthat␈αnetworking␈αhas␈αpotentials␈αjustifying␈αgovernment␈αpowers␈αthat␈αwere␈αhardly␈αasserted
␈↓ α∧␈↓even␈αduring␈αWorld␈αWar␈αII.␈α Licklider␈αshould␈αsay␈αprecisely␈αwhat␈αpowers␈αhe␈αwants␈αthe␈αgovernment
␈↓ α∧␈↓to have, making explicit the cost to society of giving the goverment such power.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT2.␈α∪Packet␈α∪switching␈α∀is␈α∪a␈α∪worthwhile␈α∪technology␈α∀and␈α∪ARPA␈α∪deserves␈α∪much␈α∀credit␈α∪for
␈↓ α∧␈↓developing␈α
it,␈α∞but␈α
ARPA's␈α∞natural␈α
tendency␈α∞to␈α
overestimate␈α∞what␈α
it␈α∞has␈α
sponsored␈α∞has␈α
led␈α∞to␈α
a
␈↓ α∧␈↓neglect␈αpossibilities␈αof␈α
using␈αthe␈αalready␈α
ubiquitous␈αdial␈αnetwork.␈α
 Elsewhere␈αI␈αhave␈αproposed␈α
that
␈↓ α∧␈↓much␈α∃useful␈α∀computer-computer␈α∃communication,␈α∀including␈α∃messages,␈α∀file␈α∃transfer␈α∃and␈α∀login
␈↓ α∧␈↓capabilities␈αof␈αARPAnet␈αcan␈αbe␈αachieved␈αfor␈α
a␈αfew␈αthousand␈αdollars␈αcapital␈αcost␈αif␈αARPAnet␈α
like
␈↓ α∧␈↓protocols for using a telephone dialer are developed.  This proposal is called ␈↓↓Dialnet␈↓.

␈↓ α∧␈↓In␈αparticular,␈αelectronic␈αmail␈αamong␈αindividuals␈αand␈αbusinesses␈αrequires␈αno␈αnew␈αnetwork␈αat␈αall␈αto
␈↓ α∧␈↓be␈αcost-effective.␈α A␈αmicro-computer␈αand␈αterminal␈αthat␈αdialed␈αthe␈αrecipient's␈αsimilar␈αterminal␈αcan
␈↓ α∧␈↓be␈α
marketed␈α
today␈αat␈α
less␈α
than␈α
␈↓∧1␈↓1500,␈αand␈α
the␈α
cost␈α
of␈αthe␈α
telephone␈α
call␈α
is␈αalready␈α
less␈α
than␈αthat␈α
of
␈↓ α∧␈↓a␈αletter␈αand␈αthe␈αcost␈αof␈αa␈αcoast-to-coast␈αcall␈αafter␈α11pm␈αis␈α21␈αcents.␈α If␈αthe␈αPostal␈αService␈αachieves
␈↓ α∧␈↓its␈α⊃goal␈α⊂of␈α⊃a␈α⊂35␈α⊃cent␈α⊂charge␈α⊃by␈α⊂1985␈α⊃for␈α⊃a␈α⊂first␈α⊃class␈α⊂letter,␈α⊃they␈α⊂will␈α⊃be␈α⊂wiped␈α⊃out␈α⊃by␈α⊂␈↓∧2␈↓500
␈↓ α∧␈↓terminals.␈α⊗ Of␈α⊗course␈α⊗it␈α∃may␈α⊗happen␈α⊗that␈α⊗through␈α∃the␈α⊗wonders␈α⊗of␈α⊗government␈α∃planning,
␈↓ α∧␈↓individuals will be forbidden to communicate in this way.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT3.␈α
We␈α
have␈αin␈α
Scenario␈α
2,␈α
␈↓↓"The␈αMultinet␈α
has␈α
supplanted␈α
the␈αpostal␈α
system␈α
for␈α
letters,␈αthe
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓dial␈αtelephone␈α
system␈αfor␈α
conversations␈αand␈α
teleconferences,␈αstand-alone␈α
batch␈αprocessing␈αand␈α
time-
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓sharing␈α
systems␈α
for␈α
computation,␈α
and␈αmost␈α
filing␈α
cabinets,␈α
microfilm␈α
repositories,␈αdocument␈α
rooms,
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓an␈α∂libraries␈α∂for␈α∞information␈α∂storage␈α∂and␈α∞retrieval␈↓.␈α∂ All␈α∂these␈α∞services␈α∂are␈α∂desirable,␈α∞but␈α∂it␈α∂is␈α∞not
␈↓ α∧␈↓desirable␈α
that␈α
they␈α
be␈α
under␈α
unified␈α
management.␈α
 The␈α
communication␈α
aspects␈α
may␈α
continue␈α
to␈α
be
␈↓ α∧␈↓natural␈α
monopolies,␈α
the␈α
filing␈α
systems␈α
certainly␈α
should␈α
be␈α
products␈α
supplied␈α
by␈αcompeting␈α
vendors.
␈↓ α∧␈↓Computing␈α∂services␈α∂are␈α∂naturally␈α∞competitive.␈α∂ There␈α∂may␈α∂be,␈α∞however,␈α∂a␈α∂new␈α∂kind␈α∂of␈α∞natural
␈↓ α∧␈↓monopoly␈α∩-␈α∪maintenance␈α∩of␈α∩single␈α∪integrated␈α∩public␈α∩databases␈α∪like␈α∩telephone␈α∪directories,␈α∩the
␈↓ α∧␈↓national␈α∩address␈α∩directory,␈α∩and␈α⊃perhaps␈α∩a␈α∩single␈α∩library␈α⊃with␈α∩all␈α∩books.␈α∩ These␈α∩may␈α⊃require
␈↓ α∧␈↓regulation of the prices they can charge.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT4.␈α∞Some␈α∂activities,␈α∞like␈α∂telephone␈α∞communication,␈α∂are␈α∞natural␈α∂monopolies,␈α∞and␈α∂others,␈α∞like
␈↓ α∧␈↓providing␈α∂computation␈α∂services,␈α∂are␈α∞not.␈α∂ Experience␈α∂seems␈α∂to␈α∂show␈α∞that␈α∂when␈α∂an␈α∂activity␈α∂is␈α∞a
␈↓ α∧␈↓natural␈α∩monopoly,␈α⊃it␈α∩is␈α⊃better␈α∩operated␈α⊃as␈α∩a␈α⊃private␈α∩monopoly␈α⊃regulated␈α∩by␈α∩the␈α⊃government.
␈↓ α∧␈↓Government␈α⊃monopoly␈α⊃is␈α⊃worse␈α⊃and␈α⊃so␈α⊃is␈α⊂a␈α⊃government␈α⊃regulated␈α⊃cartel␈α⊃(like␈α⊃the␈α⊃airlines␈α⊂or
␈↓ α∧␈↓interstate␈αcommerce).␈α The␈αreason␈αwhy␈αthe␈αlatter␈αtwo␈αwork␈αout␈αbadly␈αis␈αagain␈αpolitical␈αstruggle␈αfor
␈↓ α∧␈↓advantage rewarding the best lawyers and the best politicians.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ ε|2␈↓ ∧



␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTLicklider's␈αproposals␈αmix␈αactivities␈αthat␈αare␈αnatural␈αmonopolies␈αwith␈αactivities␈αthat␈αaren't.␈α I
␈↓ α∧␈↓think␈α∃we␈α⊗should␈α∃avoid␈α⊗at␈α∃all␈α∃costs␈α⊗creating␈α∃monopolies␈α⊗that␈α∃combine␈α⊗communication␈α∃and
␈↓ α∧␈↓computation, e.g.  the ␈↓↓New York Times␈↓ proposal to give electronic mail to the Postal Service.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αTTherefore␈α
I␈α
favor␈α
the␈α
FCC␈α
decisions␈αpermitting␈α
interconnection␈α
of␈α
devices␈α
and␈α
services␈αto
␈↓ α∧␈↓the␈αtelephone␈α
network,␈αbut␈α
worry␈αabout␈α
the␈αspecialized␈α
carriers␈αthat␈α
are␈αbeginning␈α
to␈αdemand␈α
that
␈↓ α∧␈↓the FCC create a cartel for their benefit.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT5.␈αThe␈α
article␈αoveremphasizes␈α
the␈αimportance␈αof␈α
technologies␈αwith␈α
which␈αLicklider␈αhas␈α
been
␈↓ α∧␈↓associated␈α-␈α
especially␈αpacket␈αswitching.␈α
 Almost␈αeverything␈α
that␈αis␈αpresently␈α
done␈αwith␈αthe␈α
ARPA
␈↓ α∧␈↓net␈α∞could␈α∞be␈α
done␈α∞with␈α∞suitable␈α∞protocols␈α
using␈α∞the␈α∞present␈α∞dial-up␈α
telephone␈α∞net.␈α∞ It␈α∞would␈α
be
␈↓ α∧␈↓more␈α∂expensive␈α∂only␈α∂in␈α∂very␈α∂high␈α∂traffic␈α∞situations.␈α∂ I␈α∂call␈α∂the␈α∂proposal␈α∂for␈α∂protocols␈α∂that␈α∞will
␈↓ α∧␈↓allow␈α⊃a␈α⊃program␈α⊃in␈α⊃any␈α⊂computer␈α⊃to␈α⊃dial␈α⊃a␈α⊃program␈α⊂in␈α⊃any␈α⊃other␈α⊃and␈α⊃communicate␈α⊃with␈α⊂it
␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓↓Dialnet␈↓.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT6.␈α∞The␈α∞article␈α∞overemphasizes␈α∞the␈α∞importance␈α∞of␈α∞secrecy␈α∞and␈α∞privacy␈α∞and␈α∞exaggerates␈α∞the
␈↓ α∧␈↓possibilities for crime and other misbehavior that inadequacies create.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT7. The largest interaction of computers and government

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ αT8.␈α∞The␈α
greatest␈α∞opportunities␈α
for␈α∞improvement␈α∞in␈α
government␈α∞that␈α
computers␈α∞permit␈α∞is␈α
to
␈↓ α∧␈↓make government more accessible to citizens.  Here are some proposals in that direction:

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ β$8.1.␈α
Every␈αgovernment␈α
document␈αthat␈α
is␈α
required␈αby␈α
the␈α␈↓↓Freedom␈α
of␈α
Information␈αAct␈↓
␈↓ α∧␈↓to␈α∂be␈α∞publically␈α∂accessible␈α∞should␈α∂be␈α∞kept␈α∂in␈α∞computer␈α∂files␈α∞accessible␈α∂nationwide␈α∂by␈α∞telephone.
␈↓ α∧␈↓This␈αincludes␈αthe␈α
Federal␈αRegister,␈αthe␈αCongressional␈α
Record,␈αthe␈αfiles␈αon␈α
the␈αstatus␈αof␈α
bills␈αnow
␈↓ α∧␈↓kept␈α
by␈αCongress␈α
in␈α
computers,␈αcourt␈α
decisions␈α
and␈αthe␈α
status␈α
of␈αcourt␈α
cases,␈αenvironmental␈α
impact
␈↓ α∧␈↓statements,␈α
and␈α
other␈α∞rationalizations␈α
of␈α
government␈α
decisions␈α∞and␈α
regulations.␈α
 Even␈α∞now␈α
there
␈↓ α∧␈↓are␈α∂enough␈α∂computer␈α∂terminals␈α∞so␈α∂that␈α∂such␈α∂a␈α∞practice␈α∂would␈α∂take␈α∂a␈α∞lot␈α∂of␈α∂the␈α∂mystery␈α∂out␈α∞of
␈↓ α∧␈↓government.

␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ β$8.2.␈α_This␈α_next␈α_is␈α_harder.␈α↔ Every␈α_policy␈α_generating␈α_and␈α_regulation␈α↔generating
␈↓ α∧␈↓organization␈αshould␈αkeep␈αactive␈αa␈αquestion␈αanswering␈αprogram␈αabout␈αthe␈αcontent␈αand␈αrationale␈αof
␈↓ α∧␈↓its␈α∃policies.␈α⊗ The␈α∃object␈α∃is␈α⊗to␈α∃answer␈α⊗automatically␈α∃those␈α∃questions␈α⊗that␈α∃can␈α⊗be␈α∃answered
␈↓ α∧␈↓automatically␈αand␈αtherefore␈αmake␈αthe␈αpolicy␈αmakers␈αmore␈αaccessible␈αto␈αpeople␈αwith␈αquestions␈αthat
␈↓ α∧␈↓can't␈αbe␈αso␈αanswered.␈α
 Each␈αperson␈αresponsible␈αfor␈α
policies␈αshould␈αspend␈αa␈α
few␈αpercent␈αof␈αhis␈α
time
␈↓ α∧␈↓dealing␈αwith␈αthe␈α
questions␈αnot␈αanswered␈α
automatically.␈α ␈↓↓The␈αultimate␈αgoal␈α
would␈αbe␈αthat␈α
a␈αperson
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓confronted␈αwith␈αa␈α
regulation␈αwhose␈αliteral␈αapplication␈α
is␈αunjust␈αin␈α
his␈αparticular␈αcase␈αshould␈α
always
␈↓ α∧␈↓↓be␈α
able␈α
to␈α
reach␈α
a␈αperson␈α
with␈α
the␈α
authority␈α
to␈α
make␈αan␈α
exception.␈↓␈α
The␈α
full␈α
achievement␈α
of␈αthis␈α
goal
␈↓ α∧␈↓will require major advances in artificial intelligence.









␈↓ α∧␈↓␈↓ ε|3␈↓ ∧